Mexico

Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Chiapas, Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico.

First Mexican Empire (1821–1842)
When Mexico achieved its independence, so did the southern portion of New Spain became independent as a result of the Treaty of Córdoba, so Central America (present-day Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and part of Chiapas) were incorporated into the Mexican Empire. Although Mexico now had its own government, there were no social or economic revolutionary changes. The formal, legal racial distinctions were abolished, but power remained in the hands of white elites. Monarchy was the form of government Mexicans knew and it is not surprising that they chose that form of government initially.

The first Mexican emperor, Agustin I, was ousted in a coup in 1823, with the title of emperor taken by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. Santa Anna was highly conservative, having a good relationship with the aristocracy and the church. While initially, the war of independence and the Spanish withdrawal of wealth and investment left the Mexican economy in a bad situation. The creation of the Mexican National Bank and the investment in railways gave Mexico a period of economic prosperity. Nevertheless, quality of life in Mexico was considerably low as power and wealth was solely concentrated in the hands of the oligarchy, and who did not permit any type of representation to the Mexican masses.

The relative political-economic stability that Santa Anna's reign underwent, resulted in him progressively gaining more power. Until in 1839, Santa Anna reformed the constitution so that the congress would be abolished, therefore making him an absolute monarch. The new constitution also made Mexico an extremely centralized state. This autocratic government would be opposed by liberal leaders of various Mexican States, such as Yucatan, Chiapas and Texas, who would revolt and secede from the Mexican Empire in 1841, 1842 and 1836 respectively. In 1846 and taking advantage of the unstable situation in Mexico, the United States annexed the republics of Yucatan and Texas, which Mexico still considered to be part of their territory. This would anger the Mexican who would declare war on the United States and thus begin the Mexican-American war.

The Americans pushed on to Puebla, Mexico's second-largest city, which capitulated without resistance on 1 May—the citizens were hostile to Santa Anna. After the Battle of Chapultepec (13 September 1847), Mexico City was occupied; Scott became its military governor. Many other parts of Mexico were also occupied. Some Mexican units fought with distinction. One of the justly commemorated units was a group of six young Military College cadets (now considered Mexican national heroes), who fought to the death defending their college during the Battle of Chapultepec.

The war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which stipulated that (1) Mexico must sell its northern territories to the US for US$15 million; (2) the US would give full citizenship and voting rights, and protect the property rights of Mexicans living in the ceded territories; and (3) the US would assume $3.25 million in debt owed by Mexico to Americans. The war was Mexico's first encounter with a modern, well-organized, and well-equipped army.

After the Mexican defeat in the war, Santa Anna lost most of his support. Thus, the Liberals began conspiring in a revolution that would become known as the Revolution of Ayutla. Álvarez's forces initiated 19 months of guerrilla warfare and civil unrest against Santa Anna. The rebels were aided by the exiles in New Orleans, who sent them weapons. The war continued without major battles or decisive victories. However, the rebellion proved impossible to suppress and when Mexico City denounced Santa Anna, he abdicated on 12 August 1855 and fled into exile. Álvarez's forces marched into the capital with a "brigade of rustics called Pintos (ferocious warriors so called because, in earlier times, they wore face paint). In the capital, there was widespread popular support for the Revolution of Ayutla, with people gathering in Alameda Park and waiting hours to sign a document in support of Mexico City for the revolution. Álvarez then assumed the office of President of Mexico. Once the rebels occupied Mexico City, they confiscated all of Santa Anna's property so as to recoup the indemnity from the Gadsden Purchase that Santa Anna's regime had squandered.

Mexican Departments of France (1871-1843)
In 1871, Napoleon III was defeated and captured by the Prussians during the Franco-Prussian War. This led to the establishment of the French Republic, which had to reorganize itself and its colonies. As part of this reorganization, the new republican constitution declared Mexico to be a French overseas territory. However, the Mexican Emperor disputed this claim, arguing that Mexico was a sovereign empire and should not be subjected to French rule. Due to opposition from the Republican faction, the Mexican military, as well as mounting pressure and insufficient popular support, the Mexican Emperor ultimately relinquished his throne in a non-violent manner, resulting in Mexico coming under the direct control of France.

France was concerned about the potential instability in Mexico after the transition from a semi-independent empire to French territory. This was because such instability could result in an uprising by those who sought independence. Given that Mexico was one of France's most populous and resource-rich territories, it was crucial to prevent any widespread dissatisfaction. So to prevent this, it was decided that Mexico would become an integral part of France (as well as Algeria). And the new republican constitution granted full citizenship to Christians in integral parts of France, which meant that most Mexicans became full-French citizens. This was noteworthy because it gave Mexicans political protection, representation, and voting rights that they had not had under previous governments. Additionally, this was revolutionary for the time because it meant that Christian indigenous Mexicans now had the same rights as ethnic French citizens. Nevertheless, to prevent Mexican independentist and national political parties and groups from gaining power in the French government, they would be prohibited.

During this period, Mexico's economy prospered and quality of life considerably increased. In addition, a number of French elements (such as architecture, literature and design) were all exported to Mexico, which lead to a period of rich and abundant artistic production, known as the "Golden Era of Mexican Arts" (1890-1930). One of the most notable art movements which arose during this time was Mexican Muralism, which consisted of large artworks painted onto the wall itself. Music also went through a period of richness, and it is commonly agreed that the traditional music which currently identifies Mexico, mostly emerged during this era.