Argentina

Argentina, officially the Argentine Commonwealth (Spanish: Mancomunidad de Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. It shares the bulk of the Southern Cone with Chile to the west, and is also bordered by Bolivia to the north, Brazil to the northeast, the South Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Drake Passage to the south. Argentina covers an area of 3,363,367 km2 (2,089,899 sq mi) and is the largest Spanish-speaking nation in the world. It is the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, the fourth-largest country in the Americas, and the eighth-largest country in the world. Argentina is subdivided into seventeen provinces, and one autonomous city, which is the federal capital, Galeston. The three largest cities by metropolitan area are Port Trinity (Buenos Aires), Montevideo and Asunción.

Argentina is a republic and a parliamentary democracy. The country's head of government is the prime minister—who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially multilingual at the federal level. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration waves, radically reshaping its cultural and demographic outlook

A highly developed country, Argentina has the ninth-largest economy nominally and 8th by Purchasing Power Parity. It is part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations, the G7, the Group of Ten, the G20, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Commonwealth of Nations, Unasur, Community of Latin American and the Caribbean States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, and the Organization of American States. r = History =

Spanish Colonial Era
Europeans first arrived in the region with the 1502 voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. The Spanish navigators Juan Díaz de Solís and Sebastian Cabot visited the territory that is now Argentina in 1516 and 1526, respectively. In 1536 Pedro de Mendoza founded the small settlement of Buenos Aires, which was abandoned in 1541.

Further colonization efforts came from Paraguay—establishing the Governorate of the Río de la Plata—Peru and Chile. Francisco de Aguirre founded Santiago del Estero in 1553. Londres was founded in 1558; Mendoza, in 1561; San Juan, in 1562; San Miguel de Tucumán, in 1565. Juan de Garay founded Santa Fe in 1573 and the same year Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera set up Córdoba. Garay went further south to re-found Buenos Aires in 1580. San Luis was established in 1596.

The Spanish Empire subordinated the economic potential of the Argentine territory to the immediate wealth of the silver and gold mines in Bolivia and Peru, and as such, it became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776 with Buenos Aires as its capital.

British Invasion of the River Plate


As a part of a campaign of the Anglo-Spanish War of 1796-1810, 14,000 British men commanded by John Whitelocke were sent from the Cape of Good Hope to invade the Spanish Colony of Rio de la Plata. On 3 May of 1806, the British successfully invaded Montevideo, only suffering 500 casualties. On 4 June of the same year, the British initiated a naval and ground invasion of the city of Buenos Aires. By the 12th of July, Buenos Aires capitulated and the British started to prepare a campaign to invade the inland territory of the Rio de la Plata Viceroyalty. The intendencies of Buenos Aires and Montevideo, were the first to fall, having quick and desicive victories in the cities of Parana, Santa Fe, San Pedro, Pergamino, Rosario, Ensenada and Concepcion del Ururuguay.

Consequently the British easily conquered the intendencies of Cordoba, Misiones and Salta del Tucuman. The Spanish, alarmed by the British advancement, sent a large army to victoriously protect the Real Audiencia of Charcas (nowadays Bolivia), one of their wealthiest colonies, resulting in a stalemate that ended up defining the borders for the future British colony.

A campaign aimed at Paraguay was ended up being unsuccessful, leading to a rise in Paraguayan revolutionary ideas and a sense of common identity. Paraguay established its own congress and declare sovereignty from both Spain and the United Kingdom. The British recognized their independence as Paraguay could serve as a buffer state between them and the colony of Brazil.

When the news that Spain has been subjugated to France came to the Americas, the Spanish commanders promptly offered peace and reconciliation with the British, who now began supporting the Spanish during the Peninsular wars. Spain gave up its claims to the Real Audiencia of Buenos Aires, which would be officially handed to the British in the 1810 treaty of Plymouth.

British Colonial Era (1811-1882)


After the British takeover, Argentina became divided into 7 colonies: South Platina, North Platina, New Lunenburg, New Vandalia, North Georgia, Stokesland, and the Western Colony.

The Argentine reaction to British rule was varied depending on the social groups. The middle class and upper classes of the big cities (mainly criollo merchants and lawyers) were pleased by the British administration, as it meant fewer trade restrictions and a better protection against outside threats. On the other hand, Spanish Iberians, Mestizos, Catholic priests, soldiers of the former viceroyalty and royalists intellectuals opposed British rule. Meanwhile, the inner areas had an overall negative perception of British rule, seen as invaders who would eventually destroy their traditions and culture to fulfill their selfish purposes.

West Argentina and the Era of Caudillismo
Therefore, in the North Georgia and Cordoba colonies, the figures of the caudillos started to emerge as a reaction against British control; these were generally Spanish-speaking landowners who exercised de facto authority over a certain place. The people of the western colonies heeded the Caudillos as a response to British rule, since the caudillos shared the same education, language, religion, and values, while also having a better approach and understanding of their problems. The caudillos would revolt multiple times against British rule, however, the British Army was far more numerous and modernized, and most of these uprisings ended up downtrodden. Eventually, the British executives and the Caudillos reached a mutually beneficial relationship in which the caudillos would be in charge of maintaining control and order of the western colonies´ populations (which were significantly more difficult to control and the geographically far), while the British would facilitate them to export their products abroad as well as compromising to maintain their influence and help them protect against indigenous raids.

East Argentina and the Parana company
The Pampean colonies saw a reorganization of the land, leading to substantial economic growth. Quickly, the Pampean colonies went through a prosperous period of agricultural modernization, extensive farming, foreign investment, and new railroads and ports. This led to a large wave of British settlers arriving with aim of using the arable land of the Pampas area.

While Spanish was tolerated, English was the official language in all the colonies. English was promoted to a greater or lesser extent depending on the colony. In the Pampean colonies (New Vandalia, Stokesland, North Platina, South Platina and New Lunenberg) English started being taught at schools and was used for almost the entirety of official matters. Meanwhile, in the Cordoba and North Georgia colonies, English only was spoken among the British authorities.

Hence, this period of Argentina would be characterized by the growing tensions between the original Spanish inhabitants and the new English settlers, to lighten those tensions, the Port Trinity Act of 1838 was signed, which similar to the Quebec act, restored the Civil law, now used alongside the Common law, and gave further rights and power to the Catholic Church. Although the use of force to dismantle caudillist movements was fairly common too. Caudillism would die out by the 1860s, most of them becoming landlords while some others were imprisoned or executed by the British.

Moreover, fights with the Argentine indigenous tribes emerged as the British gradually attempted to hold direct dominance over the Patagonia region in Argentina, this would be known as the Araucanan Massacre, where in order to the ethnic cleansing committed by British Soldiers

Paraguay War (1864-1867)


Most South American states were troubled by claims to the same territories, one of the most notable examples of this was Paraguay, which had disputed territories with all of its neighbours. The territorial disputes became worse when the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata collapsed in the 1810s, which lead to the creation of Paraguay, Bolivia and the British Platinean Colonies.

It did not help either that the policies of the new Paraguayan President Francisco Solano López were expansionist and aggressive. A strong military was developed because Paraguay's larger neighbours, Brazil and Great Britain, had territorial claims against it and wanted to dominate it politically.

The dissolution of the First Peru-Bolivian Confederation, lead to the creation of the unstable Republic of the Charcas, which was greatly influenced by the United Kingdom and Brazil. Due to the influence it received, Charcas had only had conservative presidents who served the Brazilian and British interests. However, Eliodoro Camacho, of liberal alignment, was elected as president of Bolivia in 1860, who despite having taken measures that would benefit the country, was removed from his post after four years in office through a coup d'état by conservative forces. Brazil would support this coup by sending troops and weapons, while the United Kingdom would also finance the Conservatives. Solano Lopez demanded Brazil stop getting involved in Charcas and an explanation for it, but their demands were ignored. This would culminate in the capture of a Brazilian ship in November of 1864, and a month later an invasion of the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso.

The Conservatives would ultimately gain power back in Bolivia, and in 1865, Paraguay asked the United Kingdom to move troops through their territory to invade Southern Brazil too, but since they were also supporting the conservative side and had a historical friendship with Brazil, they refused to do this petition; Thus Lopez invaded Argentina and the new Charcas administration in April 1865.

In 1867, Asuncion had been capitulated by the Platinean and Brazilian troops, and in 1868 a peace treaty was signed in which Paraguay would be divided between Argentina, Brazil and Bolivia, settling all the disputes over the River Plate Basin.

Dominion of Argentina (1882-1948)


The desires for political unity and autonomy resulted in "the 1882 Port Trinity Resolution", where the Platinean colonies would be united into a federative dominion of Argentina. Throughout late 19th and early 20th century, Argentina would resolve its border disputes with Chile, the most notorious example being the Puna de Atacama treaty of 1899, the Boundary Treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina and the 1902 General Treaty of Arbitration.

In the economic field, the country saw enormous prosperity, the traditional extensive farming got replaced by an intense agriculture. This agricultural boom resulted in a desperate need for immigrants in rural areas. The invention of the railroad and the steamboat made it easier for people and goods to move around the world. Thus, the migratory currents from Europe to America multiplied. This led to the Argentine parliament initiating a massive campaign to attract immigrants to Argentina, selling them plots of land abroad or portraying Argentina as "a land of opportunities where anybody can start a prosperous new life". Between 1860 and 1910, Argentina received 9.8 million immigrants, being the second country with the most immigrants only behind the 27 immigrants received by the United States. The huge immigration transformed Argentina's culture and ousted the traditional British-Criollo rivalry. The arrival of immigrants to the bilingual River Plate led to the origin of the "Platine Creole" language, which mixed characteristics of English and Spanish while adding features of Italian, German and Irish.

Argentina was an unindustrialized country with a predominantly agro-exporter economy. At that time, Argentina received enormous investments from the British (2nd most invested by the United Kingdom in the world) and first if only counting British possessions. and had a large dependency on its trade with the British. However this led to a heavy dependence on foreign investment which became a visible problem during moments of crisis, for example, the Great War decreased British commerce which harmed the Argentine economy, though it was quickly overcome when the Roaring 20s helped Argentina's growth go back to normal. However, after the Great Depression, the economic situation significantly deteriorated over the long term, with income from Europe severely reduced.

Most Argentine politicians then were reluctant to lessen their dependency on the United Kingdom. Lots of Argentine politicians had relatives in the British Isles, and the United Kingdom assured the security of Argentina as well as an unconditional exporter of manufactured goods.

During this period, the enhancement in education led to the rise of an intellectual group of middle-class professionals known as the "Cafetas", who were mostly composed of descendants of immigrants. The name of the group originates from their habit to gather in cafes to talk and debate all kinds of topics. The cafetas started a period of political, social, artistic and literary flourishing. The cafetas became harsh critics of the benefits that British Argentinians received over the rest. The cafetas believed that Argentina should progressively leave aside its British identity and replace it with an authentic Argentine national identity. Moreover, they dislike the enormous reliance that Argentina´s economy had on British trade, suggesting the creation of national industry to reach self-sufficiency. Cafeta Immanuel Harrison formed the Argentine National Party. The party's main goal was to decrease their reliance on industrialized countries as were the British and American. This goal was to be sought by diversifying and industrializing the Argentine economy.

The massively unpopular decision of entering World War II sprang national sentiment. Although Argentina's legal status as a British Dominion made its entrance into the war inevitable, the Argentine government had the freedom to determine the country's level of involvement in the war, which was controversially significant. Almost two million troops were sent to fight, with approximately 39,000 killed and another 58,000 wounded.

Harrison's Term (1943-1953)
In 1943, elections were held, and Immanuel Harrison became the Prime Minister of Argentina.

Due to the world tension and pressure from the Allied powers, Harrison did not withdraw from World War II despite the popular demand and his wishes. Nevertheless, He enormously decreased the number of soldiers and the budget destined for the war. Shortly after the Axis fell. However, the Minister of Employment and Immigration (And then future president) Peron, facilitated the seeking of asylum to Germans, including several Nazis, that through the Vatican city escaped to the German communities in Argentina.

Harrison helped create multiple laws, including the Ley Palacios against sexual exploitation, and others regulating child and woman labour, working hours and Sunday rest.

Three years after assuming power, Harrison along with the reorganized parliament started drafting a new constitution for Argentina. The constitution while not being remarkably different from the previous, pursued to promote Argentina's national identity by distancing it from British culture and suiting it to their context

Argentine Commonwealth (1946-present)
The Act was signed into law on 21 December 1945 and came into force on 18 April 1946, Easter Monday. It principally abolished its status as a British dominion and moved its capital from Montevideo to New Colonia. Consequently, the new Argentine Commonwealth became a sovereign republic within the Commonwealth of Nations. The constitution made Argentina a fully sovereign country, becoming a parliamentary republic and removing the British monarchy as head of state. It also gave Argentina complete autonomy in its foreign affairs

Its sovereignty from the United Kingdom sky-rocketed immigration, as laws which difficulted the arrival of immigrants and obtaining passports was abolished, thereby sanctioning laws that guaranteed asylum to all immigrants and immediate Argentine residence for those interested in the acquisition of land. The separation of political ties between Argentina and the United Kingdom led to a significant amount of German and Italian immigrants arriving as they no longer feared discrimination due to their belligerence in War World II.

Economically, Argentina strived for economic independence from the United Kingdom (whose decrease in imports had been affecting the Argentine Economy for more than a decade), and the first attempts of developing a national industry were attempted.

To ensure positive relations with the United States, Harrison signed the Montevideo Accords. In the treaty was agreed Argentina would "compromise with the United States to cooperatively protect the stability of South America through the fighting against violent insurgent groups". It was also ratified Argentina would maintain trade and relations with the United Kingdom, as they would hold their membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. This as a way to reassure geopolitical alliance of Argentina with these countries despite the political distancing from the United Kingdom.

Peron's term (1954-1973)




During Harrison's mandate, Peron became one of the most powerful figures in Argentine politics. He was also extremely charismatic and gave exceptional speeches. His public popularity and widespread support also came to him being perceived as one of the founding fathers of the modern Argentine nation.

This led to him being elected by an overwhelming amount of over 70% of the votes.

The Three Great Reforms
When Peron took office, he saw the need to make profound changes in all elements of Argentina. Having lived several years in Europe, he had experienced the contrasts between the two and sought Argentina to imitate various socio-economic aspects the country was lacking behind. Despite the allowance of citizens to participate in politics, they had always been estranged from the decisions made by politicians. This is why the reforms carried out by Peron would always carry a nickname or slogan purposefully circulated among the population so that citizens were always aware of the reforms carried out by the government.

To unite the numerous ethnic and language groups, Peron started a socio-political program called "One Argentina", which emphasized values of national identity, patriotism, equality and integration of all social groups into a single "Argentine" identity. Peron would put this motto into practice with the sanction of a series of laws regarding equal treatment of all ethnicities. The "Ethnic Quota" act, for example, installed temporal numerical requirements for the hiring and promotion of non-English workers. Also the "Education Act of 1956" made obligatory the teaching of both Spanish and English in schools, as well as Guarani in the states of Paraguay, Taraguy and Chaco.

Furthermore, Peron aimed to intensify the slow industrialization process Argentina had started experiencing. He and his economy minister began an ambitious plan to convert Argentina into a fully self-sufficient state, inspired by the same endeavours made by fascist countries before the end of World War II. It became known as the "Autarky Plan" and was put into practice through import substitution, diversification of the economy and investment in new sites for resource extractions, taking advantage of the fact that Argentina has had one of the richest and most diverse territories in the world. The plan accomplished for Argentina to reduce its commerce with Europe and North America by 80%, resulting in a strengthening of the Argentine national industry, and to only require trade with neighbouring countries.

John Dominic Peron stated himself:

"Our ancestors made an exceptional job in flourishing our nation and its economy, However, its undoubtedly clear that our economic progress is sustained by a delicate thread, a thread which is our excessive dependence on other countries for prosperity, proven every single time to be problematic in moments of crisis, where the slightest reduction of their trade would culminate in the fall of our economy. The time is now to give a big step towards the absolute industrialization and self-sufficiency of our country."

Other important economic measures taken during Peron's mandate were distributist policies for monopolies, an increase in wages, workers' rights and social security.

Thanks to all of Peron's economic reforms, Argentina would shift from a principally agrarian economy at the beginning of the century, to a fully industrialized powerhouse by the mid-XX century. By 1968, Argentina surpassed economies such as the Japanese, Canadian and British.

San Jose Crisis
In 1965, the Organization of American States (OAS) held a summit meeting in San Jose, Costa Rica, where many topics were drawn for discussion. During the meeting, the United States proposed the creation of a free trade area comprising all members of the OAS which would be known as the Free Trade Agreement for the Americas (FTAA). However, the FTAA aroused widespread controversy in all American countries. The treaty was described during a speech as "one more tool of imperialism for the exploitation of the Americas". And despite the fierce opposition of certain countries, those in favour remained firm about its creation.

In response, a coalition comprised of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, El Salvador and Venezuela provocatively proposed the creation of a regional alliance and free trade area, which deliberately excluded the United States. The clashes culminated in Mexican representatives (one of the countries most supportive of the FTAA) physically confronting the Brazilian delegates and the president himself. The clashes led to when it was time to ratify the Rio Pact for Reciprocal Assistance, the aforementioned coalition of countries declared it invalid, withdrawing from it.

Ultimately, the meeting summit culminated in a diplomatic crisis, with several countries cutting bilateral relations with each other for years. Likewise, it resulted in a split between the countries forming part of the FTAA, and those against those who formed the Unisud.

Benno Mohr's presidency (1973)


In 1964, elections were held in which Benno Mohr was elected as the new prime minister of Argentina. Benno Mohr was also of immigrant background and a member of the LPP.

Benno Mohr was tolerant of socialism in comparison to Peron. He would raise trade with socialist countries and begin relations with the Socialist Incaic State of Peru, declaring Argentina as a Non-aligned state. He continued Peron's efforts to industrialize Argentina. Its connections with the East rose tensions with the United States moderately, it was only tolerated because trade with the West increased compared to Peron's era, still being more significant than Eastern's. One of his most known actions was renaming the Prosud to Unasud, and reorganizing the organization which would intensify the integration between its members even further. Unasud would have its official currency, the Austral, and achieved freedom of movement and economic integration, including a common market and customs union.

Mohr wanted to rise the immigration rates that had been declining during the end of Peron's term. He eased the migration policies for non-European immigrants, leading to the arrival of Arab, Turkish, Chinese and Korean people, and tried to increase immigration to the Northwest regions that received few immigrants in comparison to the other provinces. He made strong efforts in blending the different groups into a single Argentine identity, he institutionalized Platinean Creole and declared it a co-official language.

Johnsonist Era
Around the early 70s, socialist insurgent groups grew significantly in the northwestern areas of Argentina. These demanded an independent sovereign state in the historical Spanish-speaking parts of the country and the removal of English speakers from its territory. Although social inequality had been fixed